Keywords: Collaborative Writing

Gere, Anne Ruggles. Writing Groups: History, Theory, and Implications. Carbondale: Southern IL UP, 1987.

Gere's book, which highlights the social aspects of writing, begins by describing the history of writing groups, both within and outside of academic institutions. Gere says that while writing groups are considered "novel," such groups have actually long existed in various forms. Many academic writing groups stem from literary societies that were formed at American colleges and universities as early as the beginning of the eighteenth century. Many of them focused on debating public issues, but some also assigned and critiqued compositions. When English departments became a part of college campuses in the late nineteenth century, they "absorbed most of the literary discussion and writing instruction mostly carried out in literary societies" (14).

The incorporation of writing groups into the curriculum was shaped by at least four different philosophies popular at the time. Humanism was the most dominant philosophy, with its focus on improving critical thinking skills and the individual's mind. A second philosophy, social meliorism, emphasized social progress through more egalitarian education. Developmentalism, the third philosophy, assumed that education should be shaped to conform to human development. Finally, social efficiency drew on successful business methods, suggesting that students taught basic skills should meet fixed standards. Gere notes that these four currents continue to shape thinking about writing groups. Also, although Harvard's tremendous influence, with its focus on correctness in writing, dominated writing pedagogy, writing groups did manage to continue, though marginally, throughout the nineteenth century. The 1966 Dartmouth Conference, a gathering of British and American educators, spurred interest in the writing process movement, and writing groups began to flourish.

Chapter two discusses the history of writing groups outside of the academy, many of which stem from men and women's mutual improvement societies which began in colonial times. Because these groups are self-sponsored, they tend to be autonomous, with the authority resting in the individual members themselves. In this way, they differ from many school-sponsored groups, which must deal with issues of hierarchy and competition often interfering with learning.

Chapter three deals with "Theories of Collaborative Learning." Until recently, and even currently, Gere says, composition pedagogy, theory, and research methodologies have emphasized writing as a solo performance, which partly stems from eighteenth century ideas of authorship and a belief in fixed knowledge. Scottish Enlightenment and Marxist thinkers countered this view, focusing on the social aspects of knowledge. Writing groups are obviously more suited to this view of social constructionism, which assumes that social interaction leads to new knowledge or learning.

In the next chapter, "Theories of Language Development," Gere discusses Piaget's widely-accepted view of language development, which is a view that separates the individual from society. Vygotsky's theory, more suited for writing groups, insists on a "dialectic between" the individual and society. Vygotsky's view, Gere says, is probably not nearly as popular, because it assumes that peers play an important role in every aspect of writing, while many instructors believe that peer work should merely be a stepping stone for students who will then write independently. Vygotsky's theory would also assume that teachers should take a less traditional and less authoritative role, giving students the opportunity to negotiate and explore, which is how they will create knowledge.

Gere's chapter titled "Practical Directions" offers advice regarding how teachers can create more semi-autonomous (rather than teacher-directed) groups which will have more authority and opportunity to engage in meaning-making. To help create responsible groups, Gere says, teachers need to create a positive classroom environment, provide models and advice regarding how to give collaborate feedback as well as listen, and make sure that goals and directives are apparent to each group. Finally, Gere discusses "Theories of Literacy," specifically a skills-based literacy (literacy as a technology) and socially-defined literacy. Gere says that a skills-based view of literacy does not take into account that literacy takes a variety of forms and is "highly culture dependent." The alternative, more suited to writing groups, is to view literacy as a "complex social phenomenon." Writing groups, Gere says, offer people the opportunity and means to join "a community through understanding the issues it considers important and developing the capacity to participate in conversations about those issues."