This chapter examines research done in the field of distance education which has some relation to this study, computer-based distance education. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the computer and communication skills of teachers who have taught computer-based distance education classes in one of the higher education institutions in Indiana. This study also evaluated the computer and communication skills of students who registered in computer-based distance education classes offered by one of the higher education institutions in Indiana in the Fall of 1996.
The literature review concentrated on three major areas of research: 1. Research done which, in general, has a relation with distance education. 2. Research done which, in particular, has a relation with computer-based distance education. 3. Research done which has relation with distance education in Indiana. There was adequate literature about distance education, but there were limited studies about computer-based distance education and distance education in Indiana.
Computer-based distance education is a process of teaching and learning which is designed based on the utilization of computers as the only means of delivery of the course material and communication between teacher and students.
Two of the main factors for development of distance education have been a) the necessity of providing access to new knowledge needed to satisfy current needs or needed to solve existing problems, and b) lack of accessible learning centers and instructors readily available for everybody in the society on a face-to-face basis. Various definitions for distance education exit, and each of them provides a special description of the characteristics of distance education. The main characteristic of distance education is a separation of teacher and students (Holmberg, 1986). Desmond Keegan (1986), a leading theorist in the field of distance education, stated that distance education attempts to replace face-to-face teaching and learning processes with communication in which there is a distance between teacher and learner. Shale (1988), defined distance education as teaching which takes place at a distance from learning. In all of these definitions, emphasis is on the physical separation of the teachers and students, which is one of the most accepted characteristic of distance education. Garrison and Shale (1987), wrote, "distance education must involve two-way communication between (among) teacher and student(s) for the purpose of facilitating and supporting the educational process." In this definition, the two-way communication between teacher and student is another needed characteristic for a productive teaching and learning process in distance education.
As Hoffman (1995) stated, distance education has been an evolving practice for over a hundred years starting in the form of mailed printed materials and moving to emerging electronic technologies in the 1960s and 70s such as radio, television, and telephone to today’s integrated telecommunications systems with media such as FAX, voice mail, e-mail, video and audio conferencing, and computer-based education. An acceptable definition of distance education, which makes teaching and learning at a distance different from other educational approaches, has been the subject of debates and discussions for the last one hundred years. As Shale (1988) wrote, "distance education is beset with a remarkable paradox--it has asserted its existence, but it cannot define itself." Progress in the field of telecommunication has brought new hope and strength for this method of education. Moore (1973) described distance education as:
the family of instructional methods in which the teaching behaviors are executed apart from the learning behaviors (noncontiguous), including those (behaviors) that in a contiguous situation would be performed in a learner’s presence, so that communication between teacher and learner must be facilitated by print, electronic, mechanical, or other devices.
The Garrison and Shale definition of distance education (1987) offers a set of characteristics which are essential for today’s distance education activities. They suggested that:
1. Distance education implies that the majority of educational communication between teacher and student occurs noncontiguously.
2. Distance education involves two-way communication between the teacher and student for the purpose of facilitating and supporting the educational process.
3. Distance education uses technology to mediate the necessary two-way communication.
With all these definitions, it is proper to call distance education a teaching and learning process which is not limited by time and place. Finally, Davis (1996) wrote,
during the industrial period, the educational period was basically from kindergarten through college. Today we continue expanding the number of years it takes to get educated. But this time it is lifelong learning, from kindergarten to being eighty years old. The reason for this continuous learning is that the half-life of what a person learns is getting shorter and shorter. Today, half of what an engineer learns as freshman is effectively obsolete by the time he or she graduates from college and enters the work force.
Lifelong learning has become a social necessity, and success of this contiguous learning depends on educational technology (computer and telecommunication), proper instructional design, and effective national policy.
Distance Education
Throughout the history of human communication, advances in technology have powered paradigmatic shifts in education (Frick, 1991). Communication between teacher and student is a vital element of successful distance education. Media has played an essential role in the establishment of teacher and student communication. For communication to take place, at a bare minimum, there must be a sender, a receiver, and a message. If this message is intended as an instruction, then besides student, teacher, and content, we must consider the environment in which this educational communication occurs (Berg & Collins, 1995). Moore (1990) sees the success of distance education to be based on the content of the dialog between teacher and student and the effectiveness of the communication system in an educational process.
There are some discussions about the frequencies and nature of dialogue. Hoffman (1995) referred to dialogue as the capacity for teacher and student to respond to one another.
During the nineteenth century, in the United States, several activities in adult education preceded the organization of university extension beyond campuses. In 1873, Anna Ticknor created the society to encourage studies at home for the purpose of educational opportunities for women of all classes in the society. This Boston-based, largely volunteer effort provided correspondence instruction to 10,000 members over a 24-year period despite its resolutely low profile (Ticknor, 1891). Printed materials sent through the mail were the main way of communication, teaching, and learning. In 1883 a Correspondence University headquartered at Cornell University was established, but never got off the ground (Gerrity, 1976). The first official recognition of education by correspondence came from 1883 to 1891 by Chautauqua College of Liberal Arts. This college was authorized by the state of New York to grant academic degrees to students who successfully completed work at the Summer institutes and by correspondence during the academic year (Watkins, 1991). Interest regarding the effectiveness of correspondence study verses traditional study was the subject of debates and discussions. Watkins (1991) wrote that William Rainy Harper, professor of Herbrew at Yale University, who was authorized from 1883 to 1891 to grant degrees to students who completed correspondence study, believed that correspondence study "would not, if it could, supplant oral instruction, or be regarded as its substitutes." Watkins (1991) in her book cited that Vincent (1885) wrote,
the day is coming when the work done by correspondence will be greater in amount than that done in the classrooms of our academics and colleges; when the students who shall recite by correspondence will far outnumber those who make oral recitations.
Vincent’s vision brought a new way of thinking about the value and future of distance education for institutions. Watkins (1991) explained that leadership for the development of university-level extension throughout the nation was provided by Herbert Baxter Adams, the foremost historian of his day. His enthusiasm for the extension movement was a positive force for his students at John Hopkins University. Ultimately, his students would carry on his extension work across the country.
Correspondence study has grown in popularity, acceptance, and effectiveness. In 1915, creation of the National University Extension Association(NUEA) broadened the focus to other issues, such as necessity of new pedagogical models and new national level guidelines, such as university policies regarding acceptance of credit from correspondence courses, credit transferal, and standard quality for correspondence educators.
The University of Chicago faculty survey findings in 1933, suggested that correspondence study should be justified on an experimental basis, generating innovations and research data leading to improvements in teaching methodology (Gerrity, 1976). This research study was very important for the future knowledge base in this field. The medium of mail was a dominate delivery system for over forty years, but new delivery technologies started to provide additional options for correspondence study. Pittman (1986) wrote,
visual instruction, including lantern slides and motion pictures was added to the repertory of many extension units in the period of 1910-1920, but most promising new technology for correspondence instruction was instructional radio.
In the years between the World Wars (1918-1946), the federal government granted radio broadcasting licenses to 202 colleges, universities, and school boards. With all the demands and popularity of instructional radio, by the year 1940 there was only one college-level credit course offered by radio and that course failed to attract any enrollments (Atkins, 1991). Still, the concept of education by radio was a major reason for development of educational television by the mid 20th century. More and more association and social support developed for distance education around the country. Packing companies, railroads, the American Banking Association, Labor Unions, Army and Navy, and state and national welfare associations recognized the merits of correspondence instruction (Watkins, 1991). With the growth of popularity and needs for correspondence study, new questions such as learners’ characteristics, students’ needs, effectiveness of communication, and value of outcomes in comparison with face-to-face study became public interests. From the pursuit of answers to these questions emerged needed research initiatives such as Gale Childs’ (1949) dissertation studying the effectiveness and reliability of correspondence study as an educational method (Watkins, 1991). The interest in finding answers for these questions was the reason for many new research studies which have contributed to the growth of the knowledge base of distance education. Clark (1996) wrote, "the studies of improvement of teaching by using media have been part of educational research since Thorndike (1912) recommended pictures as a labor-saving device in instruction." In response to wartime needs, extension programs also provided a variety of technical and mechanical training opportunities, as well as short courses and refresher courses (Watkins, 1991). After World War II, television was considered as another delivery option in the correspondence study.
In the early 1950s, despite the efforts of leaders in the field, correspondence study struggled to gain acceptance, and it was still seen as suspect by academics (Wright, 1991). During this period, research helped to further the acceptance and extension of correspondence study. As Childs (1973) indicated, little research existed to support the apparent and perceived strengths of the methodology, and there was little or no sense of professionalism. During the fifth International Conference on Correspondence Education (ICCE), in Alberta, Canada, delegates from universities, governments, and proprietary institutions reflected a growing interest in the research of correspondence study (National University Education Association (NUEA), 1957). Over the past half century, the Ford Foundation has played an important role in the development and support of area and international studies within American higher education. With a Ford Foundation grant, Childs initiated a project, in 1956, to study the application of television instruction in combination with correspondence study. From this important and needed study, Childs concluded "television instruction is not a method. Television is an instrument by means of which instruction can be transmitted from one place to another" (Almenda, 1988). Childs also found no appreciable differences in regular classrooms by means of television, or by a combination of correspondence study and television (Almenda, 1988).
During the 1960s and 1970s, a number of alternatives to traditional higher education developed in the United States. The major reasons were broad national trends that included rapidly escalating costs of traditional resident education, interest in informal and nontraditional education, an increasingly mobile American population, the growth of career-oriented activities, necessity of learning new competencies, public dissatisfaction with educational institutions in general and the early success of Britain’s Open University (Gerrity, 1976).
Britain’s Open University brought a new vision of independence for distance education as distinct from traditional education. Britain’s Open University played a major role in the development of much of the important research in distance learning (Zigerell, 1984). Britain’s Open University is the largest and most innovative educational organization in the world. It is a leader in the large-scale application of technology to facilitate distance learning. Open University brought the needed respect and confidence to the correspondence program around the world. The success of Britain’s Open University was the major reason for the development of open universities in other countries, such as America and Japan. Open University not only overcomes the restrictive concept of place and time, but also eliminates the boundary of nations and nationalities. There are more than 218,000 people currently studying with the Open University, and the principal qualifications awarded by this university are BA, and Bsc degrees, Masters, an MBA, and research degrees including Bphil, Mphil, and PhD (Open University, 1996).
The first United States open university was New York State’s Empire State College (NYSES), which commenced operation in 1971 (Gerrity, 1976). One of the main purposes of the NYSES was to make higher education degrees more accessible to learners unable to attend traditional programs, campus-based courses. The program in NYSES modified the concept of academic credits and provided a greater flexibility regarding degree requirements and time limitations than was characteristic of tradition-based degree programs (Gerrity, 1976). Providing a direction for advancement of research activities in distance education was a major concern of leaders in this field. Two individuals who played major roles in the advancement of the state of scholarly research in the field are Charles Wedemeyer of the University of Wisconsin and Gayle Childs of the University of Nebraska (Wright, 1991). Wedemeyer and Childs made major contributions in the transformation of correspondence study into a profession. Both played major roles in the advancement of distance education research. They were recognized as leaders of the movement throughout the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s (Wright, 1991). Wedemeyer and Childs not only provided needed leadership to their universities correspondence programs, but also provided direction for the national and international growth of this method of teaching and learning. Both men made major contributions in the Correspondence Study Division of the NUEA and Internal Conferences on Correspondence Education. Wedmeyer and Childs publications, books, and films on correspondence study have provided teachers and students with an invaluable source of process design, teaching, and learning.
In mid 1960, the development of the Correspondence Education Research Project was a major hope for more research activities and definition of the status of the correspondence study in American higher education. In 1968, the division of Correspondence Study changed its name to the Division of Independent Study; this new division provided more options for delivery of education in the form of videotape, programmed instruction, television, telephone, and other multimedia teaching and learning (National University Extension Association (NUEA), 1969).
In the last 20 years, with the advancement in technology, independent study has become more accessible for distance education students. Zigerell (1984) wrote, "the ease with which modern communications technologies can link educational institutions to homes, work-sites, and community centers has made adult education and lifelong learning matters of national policy" (P. 53). At the same time, the loads and responsibilities of adults have become of interest to experts and educators in distance learning. Feasley (1983) stated that individuals who must learn at a distance have ongoing obligations such as employment, family responsibilities, handicaps, or live in geographically isolated area. The 1970s and 1980s introduced the related concept "distance education" which posed new challenges to traditional independent study, forcing a reexamination and redefinition of the place of independent study in this new international movement (Wright, 1991).
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, cable and satellite television came into use as a delivery medium for distance education courses (Wright, 1991). During the 1980s, many quality telecourse offerings were available by using cable and satellite delivery. But as Munshi (1980) said, "unfortunately, systematic efforts to evaluate telecourses have been the exception rather than the rule." In the Fall of 1991, eighteen institutions, including the University of California, the University of Oklahoma, Penn State, and Washington State, used the Mind Extension University (MEU), Educational Network to deliver video course materials for independent study courses (MEU catalog, 1991). Women’s desire and participation in distance education helped the growth of distance education in the 1980s and 1990s. The report of the survey of telecourse enrollments in five states showed 67% of the participants in the distance education were women(Instructional Telecommunication Consortium, 1984). Participation of women in distance learning was directly related to political and social changes in women’s position within the family and society, technological changes in the work place, and the economic necessity of participation, and the job market and new job opportunities.
The research activities of Britain’s Open University provided new directions and emphasis for more research in this field. Publication of Research in Distance Education in 1989 provided great opportunity to collect information about ongoing research projects and the results of current research in the field of distance education. Until the arrival of this new periodical, most research institute descriptions were found in sources difficult to access in the United States (Moore, 1985; Rumble & Harry, 1982).
Coldeway (1982) identified the following reasons for the limitation of research activities in distance education.
1. Educational researchers are rarely present during the design of distance learning systems.
2. There is no clear paradigm for research in distance learning, and it is difficult to attract funds to develop one.
3. Some institutions are averse to defining boundaries and variables clearly.
4. Educational researchers often ask questions of no practical or even theoretical relevance.
5. Researchers in the distance learning test variables that are really classes of variables (such as comparisons of distance and classroom learning).
Advancement in telecommunications and computer technologies will speed up national and international cooperation in both research and documentation (Feasley, 1991). Technology makes the process of research, collection of data, analysis of data, and generation of reports easier and faster. Calvert (1986) provided a helpful conceptual framework for distance education research by identifying three principal kinds of variables: input, process, and outcome. The input and outcome variables can be divided into student or system variables, and process variables are divided as either development or delivery variables.
With the increase in demand for distance education, the growing concerns were knowledge about effectiveness of distance education and changes in pedagogy enabled and required by the advancement of technology.
A recent American Federation of Teachers (AFT) task force report states that too little is known about the effectiveness of distance learning and that more independent research is needed (Twigg, 1996). At the same time, Clark (1996), in his paper mentioned that media forms are mere vehicles that deliver instruction, but do not influence student achievement any more than the truck that delivers our groceries causes changes in our nutrition. Clark believes that it is not media, but variables such as instructional method that foster distance learning.
Even with the growth in the amounts of distance education in our higher educational institutions, few studies examined students learning experiences, effectiveness of instructional methods, and strengths and limitation of this model of teaching and learning. Russell (1996), Office of Instructional Telecommunications at North Carolina State University, provided brief quotations from 218 research reports, summaries, and papers, from 1945 to the present that compare technology-driven education methods with traditional classroom instruction. The compiled citations and quotations indicate that students learn equally well from education delivered by technology as measured by these 218 reports at a distance and face-to-face. In addition to the effectiveness of learning experiences, the reasons for learners’ participation in distance education are another attractive topic of systematic investigation by researchers.
Wallace (1991) in her dissertation, Faculty and Student Perceptions of Distance Education Using Television(TV), provided rich information about the reasons adults participate in the TV education. Her conclusion of study revealed the reasons for participation were opportunity to earn an MBA (90.9%), opportunity to upgrade work skills (75.1%), and the opportunity to learn more about business concepts (83.2%). Her finding was a strong display of the objectives of participants in the adult continuing education. Most students participating in TV programs found their courses to be challenging and had favorable experiences with technology. Wallace’s recommendation for additional investigation includes: further research in educational resources and training needs of both students and teachers, attitudes of faculty toward distance learners, evaluation of educational experiences with regards to lack of personal interaction in the group, and follow-up study for comparison of performance of this group with face-to-face class students. Wallace also recommended that incorporating the electronic mail system with TV education can facilitate better communication between students and teacher. The main finding of the Wallace study is that continuing education is necessary for better job performance and advancement in the job market. Her recommendation for combining asynchronous technology(e-mail) with synchronous technology(TV), and training needs of distance education students and teachers are major issues in the distance education program.
Computer-based Distance Education
Computer-based education is a process of teaching and learning that delivers interactive, responsive, convenient, empowering, and outcome oriented activities which use the computer as the only means of delivery and communication. In this method, the process of teaching and learning is designed based on asynchronous activities without the limitation of time and place.
Computer conferencing was first used for education in 1981; today, this medium has been adapted at all levels and methods of the education. It has introduced important enhancements and new options for teaching and learning (Harasim, 1992). The role of computer and telecommunication technologies is growing exponentially in every level of teaching and learning activities. As Davie (1996) discussed, that in the past ten years, most Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) distance education has used computer conferencing software for designs of the process of teaching and learning where individuals participated in distance education courses from home or work. In the past two years, connections to the Internet have grown immensely, and important new developments, such as Internet Service Providers (ISP) and graphical browsers for use with the World Wide Web (WWW), have made the Internet even more accessible for asynchronous teaching and learning. In the availability of learning resources by computer Bates (1993) said, " learning can be independent of time and place, and available at all stage of a person’s life. Learners will have access not only to a wide range of media, but also to a range of sources of education." The advancement in computer and telecommunication technologies provided new opportunities for higher educational institutions in the offering of computer-based distance education.
The new concerns are the levels and types of technical skills, needed training, and support for teachers and learners who participate in the teaching and learning in the computer-based education. These concerns are the focus of this study. There is limited research literature about these issues in regards to computer-based distance education. Davie (1996) wrote, "we need to investigate what skills are related to a feeling of competence in computer-mediated communication (CMC)." Lucy (1994), in his dissertation, discussed that it is unknown whether faculty and students are computer literate or even comfortable with using computers and modems in the computer-based education. Chandler (1994), in his research, indicated that distance education; multi/hyper/interactive media; and technical skills necessary to access, manipulate, store, and retrieve information are perceived as growing in importance, due to the demands of the information age. Davie (1996), in his study concluded:
we tend to think of CMC education as institutionally based, as extension of the classroom. But what of possible research into the person on the street and the possible learning relationships with the agencies and organizations involved in providing services to that person--from garage mechanics to social workers. How does or will CMC be used in informal setting as a learning tool? We might explore how service providers via the Internet are being used by individual learners? How do they find the resource they need? How do they use the resource? What would they like to see different? How do they identify their own needs?
Davie is trying to direct our attention beyond of CMC in the virtual classroom under the direction of a teacher (formal learning) to the necessity of self-directed CMC education (informal learning) by every member of our information society. The field of computer-based distance education has potential for much needed and interesting research for improvement of educational experience in this field.
In the following, due to the limited research available in the computer-based teaching and learning, I will try to present an in depth overview of the related research literature in the field of computer-based distance education. The field of computer-based education pertains to teaching and learning which occur at a distance with the computer as the only means of delivery and communication.
Ron Barnette, in his research, is convinced that the electronic medium can provide unlimited opportunities for those whose personal situation marries well with the occasion. His judgment is based on two quarter’s teaching and research in which a virtual classroom was developed and conducted entirely through computer media at Valdosta State University. Barnette indicated, "the experiment of the first course was too good to let go, and after a piece describing it came out in the Chronicle of Higher Education, I received numerous inquiries which helped shape plans for PHICYBER II" (P. 32). Through the university’s gopher service, a virtual library with over 100 texts was created. Course handouts were also posted in the gopher. All classroom discussions and dialogues were to be conducted through e-mail via an electronic list subscription(LISTSERV). He thinks the dynamics should prove fascinating to explore, especially in light of computer-mediated world-wide communication and collaboration. In his first class, Barnette had students from Georgia, Illinois, North Carolina, Texas, and New York. In his second course, he had students from nine countries around the world. In his conclusion, he emphasized that electronic education experiments can bring out the best of what diversity in quality education has to offer. His study concluded that these occasions (virtual classes) are those that shape real-world involvement, even if such involvement is becoming more and more computer-mediated. Barnette’s research report indicated that in his virtual classroom it was remarkable to watch interpersonal relationships unfold, based only, as agreed, upon one another’s ideas criticized and expanded. Students would respond to the discussion topic, defend their positions, raise critical objections, respond to challenges, reflect on implied new directions for analysis and further critical thought. These educational experiences were valuable for development of critical thinking, participation in discussion, and sharing ideas and knowledge. His research indicated that there is a growing market for computer-based classes in the United States and around the world.
Lynne Schrum, instructor and researcher of the virtual classroom at the University of Georgia, with ninety- five students from around the world, explained that non-traditional students must overcome concerns about time, distance, and money that traditional students do not have. On-line classes offer one potential solution to these issues. Her research looked at on-line courses, identified significant issues in the development of these courses and characteristics of students. Schrum said, "the importance of these courses obligates the providers in assuring that courses are pedagogically sound, organizationally strong, and institutionally supported." In her study, she emphasized that certain pedagogical, organizational, and institutional issues must be considered when beginning an on-line course. For Schrum pedagogical issues are identification of goals, philosophical changes in the teaching and learning process, reconceptualization of the teacher’s role, and redesign of the course delivery system. The organizational issues are timing, inclusion of face to face components (if possible), structure of group interactions, and minimum requirements for taking the course. The institutional issues are faculty incentives, access and equity, credit decisions, on-going evaluation of the computer-based distance education courses, and continual support for students and teachers. She also used e-mail, computer conferencing, and remote database searching for group discussion, access to materials, and process of teaching and learning.
Schrum explained that different offices have the responsibility for the support, development, and technology availability, but unfortunately these offices might not communicate, much less collaborate with each other. The result is often, lack of good support for faculty and students. She concluded that it is important the learner have technological skills so that they are comfortable with computers. Individuals who try to learn information technologies as they learn about computers seem to give up easily. Her research identified significant issues related to computer-based classes. It is important that learners are able to decide if an on-line course will be a positive experience for them, given individual needs and characteristics. Institutional planners must consider policy and support issues before offering on-line courses. Educators and course designers must take a careful look at the pedagogical issues when designing these computer-based courses. Finally, she says,
a continuous and well planned research agenda must be established to inform those considering taking or offering on-line courses. We need further exploration of student characteristics. Further, we need to identify what content is easily and successfully taught through on-line interaction.
Her findings indicate that students with some knowledge of computer applications, such as word processing software, have more chance to succeed in computer-based classes. She indicated the necessity of more research in this field, especially about learners, contents, and support programs. Overall, she presented many useful facts about this field and encouraged future study for better planning, training, and support.
In 1988, Starr Hiltz conducted a research project "Collaborative Learning in a Virtual Classroom" which was supported by the New Jersey Department of Higher Education, Governor’s Commission, and IBM. She used a computer mediated communication system to create a virtual classroom. Objectives of the virtual classroom were to improve access to advance educational experiences by allowing students and teachers to participate in remote learning communities, using personal computers at home, on campus, or at work. This study employed a quasi-experimental design that matched sections of the same course with the same instructor, text, and examinations which are conducted in the traditional and virtual classroom settings. The main tool for communication and assignments was e-mail. The software to support collaborative learning was the Tailorable Electronic Information Exchange System.
The majority (65%) of students responded that the on-line course was more convenient for them than traditional courses. The virtual classroom gave them the chance to work on the materials at times of their own choosing. The communication by computer and modem was very comfortable for students and teachers. In addition to the time, working at their own pace, freedom in the process of learning, and not having to go to the class were some of the attributes mentioned. More than half (56%) agreed that they had a more active role in the process of the course and learning. About 58% felt that they had better access to their teacher in the virtual classroom. The process helped students to gain greater knowledge about computers, finding information, and independent work. Some students mentioned they spent more time in the activities of the virtual classroom than in the traditional classroom.
Hiltz’s study was conducted in 1988 when the synthesis of computers and communication technology had just started. There was a limited amount of educational software which could help activities in the virtual classroom. The study provided valuable information about the possibility of computer-based classes for educational institutions.
Randy McGinnis, science professor at the University of Maryland, used e-mail and LISTSERV (electronic mail discussion group) in his action research. The main purpose of his study was to test if electronic discussions have the potential to become a meaningful part of teaching and learning, and to increase students interest in the course. The course was a graduate course which was offered in the Spring, 1994. The thirteen participants in this study were diverse in their backgrounds (white, African-American, International). One major benefit of using LISTSERV was that all the students referred to the enhancement in communication and participation in the discussion of problems. The students became empowered about the process of learning and problem solving. Computer-based distance education provides an opportunity for the learner to be empowered in most aspects of the learning activities. The empowerment of the learner fits perfectly with andragogy, the best known theory of adult learning. Andragogy is based on five assumption, which are strong reasons for the empowerment of adult learners in the teaching and learning process. Knowles (1980) introduced the following assumptions:
1. As a person matures, personality moves from dependent personality toward one of a self-directed human being.
2. Adults have accumulated experiences, which are rich resources for learning.
3. Readiness of an adult to learn is related to his/her social role.
4. Adults are more problem-centered than subject-centered in learning.
5. Adults are motivated to learn more by internal factors than external ones.
Knowles’s andragogy stresses adult learner’s characteristics. The freedom in the process of learning activities without limitation of time, place, planning, and resources can enhance adult’s positive experiences from computer-based distance education classes.
McGinnis indicated, "Being a class LISTSERV owner required me to develop new pedagogical skills, particularly in facilitating class discussions. It also helped me to develop new computer skills and increase my technology knowledge base" (P. 16). He mentioned that he believed that the class LISTSERV created a virtual community that enhanced the class members’ communication and participation. The LISTSERV was both beneficial and detrimental; it brought people together over the telephone line, but alienated them physically.
McGinnis’s class used e-mail and LISTSERV for communication, teaching, and learning activities. The results were an advancement of students and teacher in the utilization of computer applications and technology. The results of the research provide more information in the use of communication technology for distance learning in science methods classes. He had some concern about the lack of face- to-face classroom communication and discussion which are very important educational experiences.
Wilson & Mosher (1994) in their research report about implementation of Interactive Multimedia Distance Learning (IMDL) at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute by AT&T Bell Laboratories, provided future directions for further research in computer-based teaching and learning. They concluded that further work needs to study the cognitive and pedagogical implications of learning in distant classrooms. They recommended further research to answer questions such as:
1. Does IMDL allow instructors to guide students to learning objectives requiring higher cognitive level thinking?
2. Compare the cost effectiveness of instructor led, computer assisted instruction, non-interactive distance learning, and IMDL instruction delivery.
3. What cues will best alert users to system status during sessions?
4. What preparation or training will make the IMDL environment comfortable to use for the participants?
5. What class activities are best performed locally, and what activities are best performed in conference?
Their recommendations for future research are based on their experience in computer-based classes. They emphasize the need for research in the role of technology in the teaching and learning, competencies required of students and teachers, and design of instructional methods which can foster the utilization of technology in the education.
Wiesenberg & Hutton (1995), in their research, "Teaching Graduate Programs Using Computer Mediated Communication (CMC)" explained that the key benefits of using CMC are:
a. Provides convenience, as learners choose when to participate without having to worry about the usual barriers and disadvantages (family and work life, and geographical distance).
b. Promotes a higher level of student to student as well as student to teacher interaction.
c. Fosters a higher quality of learning, as non-synchronous communication allows time for more critical thinking and contributions.
d. Allows students a number of on-line resources.
Their research report identifies the following key areas which are main challenges in the designing and implementation of the process of the computer mediated conferences in the education:
a. There are technical difficulties that are often unanticipated and out of students’ control.
b. Computer mediated conferencing is more time consuming than face-to-face education.
c. Interpreting communication without the benefit of visual cues can lead to misinterpretation of messages.
d. Difficulty in keeping focus and track of discussion with teacher and other students.
Wiesenberg & Hutton found that the most unique challenges in the CMC classroom were the technical ones and the application of building an on-line learning community for creation of a successful on-line education. The authors make the following recommendations for a successful computer-based education:
1. Administration - expert technical support is absolutely critical before, during, and after the learning event takes place. They recommended off-hours support is more critical for distance education students.
2. Instructor - learning how to create an inclusive learning environment and to teach collaboratively is critical to the success of on-line distance education. Finding out about students’ learning needs and preferences should be part of initial program planning.
3. Students - must become self-directed learners if they are to succeed in this CMC program. It is also imperative that students have a measure of skill and comfort with CMC, and especially on-line discourse, prior to entering a program that relies on this technology.
Their conclusion is that students, teachers, and administrators need to participate in the program planning and be accepted and respected for their contributions and roles in the computer-based teaching and learning process.
Marion & Melvin (1995), in their research examined the potentialities and problems for on-line training and development of large numbers of teachers located at their home districts via an Internet mediated Virtual Classroom. They indicated that without an effective means of training teachers to use these technologies comfortably and effectively, however, successful adoption in the classroom is improbable. Learning materials have been presented via the Internet for learners to apply in a self-paced and self-motivated learning process.
Marion and Melvin concluded that effective implementation of on-line telecommunications training for learners will require developing and evaluating methods for assessing learning of telecommunication knowledge and skills based on authentic performance assessment. In their findings they wrote, "the development of a community of learners via the Internet with on-line collaborative learning will serve the interest of assessment by enabling the large scale use of peer assessment." They also concluded that Virtual Classroom will provide an environment of mutual support and problem solving assistance to encourage learner success. They strongly believe in the power and contribution of the Internet as an educational tool in the teaching and learning process.
Richards Irving (1995) in his research, "A Study of Computer-Modem Students: A Call for Action" explained that the finding in this study indicated that 71% of computer-modem students were female, and 79% of participants felt their basic educational needs were met by computer-based education. Most students cited the convenience and self-paced nature of the format as assets, and the on-line time limitations and delays in instructor feedback as main barriers to success. The researcher indicated that little is known about distance education via modem, and there is limited data on computer/modem students--their backgrounds, reasons for enrollment, age, sex, marital status, employment, reason for enrollment, educational status, and drop-out rate.
He also mentioned that the first doctoral dissertation on computer/modem distance education was written in 1993, at the University of Toronto by Burge. Irving, in his conclusion says, "computer/modem classes offer an opportunity to students who otherwise might not be able to attend on-campus classes." Irving’s study suggests a call for action on several fronts:
1. Are the conclusions applicable to other classes?
2. Do the survey results represent the college student population?
3. Would a study conducted at a smaller institution produce different results?
Telecommunication networks are changing the nature of teaching and learning in all aspects of education. Nowhere is this more evident than in the explosion of on-line education, courses offered primarily or entirely through computer mediated communication (Schrum, 1994). Advancement in computer and telecommunication technologies and growth in the number of Internet Service Providers with the reality of the information superhighway and capability of World Wide Web are bringing distance education to the stage of reality for every citizen. There is tremendous need for research results in the computer-based education which help in the successful transition from our current educational systems and instructional methods to the one which can foster lifelong learning in the information society. As Twigg (1996) said, "the emphasis must be not on the technology, but on change in pedagogy enabled by information technology."
Clark (1996), concluded that to find an acceptable impact on the teaching and learning, we must look to instructional design, rather than to technology by itself. The indication from the cited research materials is that there is an urgent need for dependable information which can enable institutions to deliver effective distance education, which can provide educational experiences equal to or superior to those provided as on-campus education. Davie (1996) mentioned that the reality of the 1990s involves more complex interactions, many of which take place for non-economic reasons. This growing diversity in how people use on-line communication challenges those studying CMC.
Finally, Mingle and Gold (1996) discussed in a recent American Federation of Teachers (AFT) report on unions, ways to "harness the technology revolution on campus". They issued several recommendations on how to improve technology decision-making and use at institutions of higher education. The report included a call for more research and evaluation of both distance learning and on-campus instruction. The report stresses that investing in technology without investing in training for faculty and students is a waste of money. They mentioned that the question still remains whether the quality of educational experiences in distance education is the same as on-campus. "Research could prove us wrong, but it has not."
Distance education in Indiana
Susan Scott (1996), Director of Program Services in the Higher Education Telecommunication System of Indiana, in her interview by telephone mentioned that continuing education in the past was by radio from Purdue and Indiana Universities. In the 1960’s, Midwest for Airborne Television Instruction (MPATI) was a provider of education by television for the Midwest residences. The production center for this television education was at Purdue University. In the 1960s, Purdue and Indiana universities offered television classes to Indiana residences.
In 1967, the Indiana General Assembly authorized the state’s colleges and universities to jointly arrange for the use of a multi-purpose, multi-media, closed-circuit, statewide telecommunications system. The structure of the networks and services which has evolved is the Indiana Higher Education Telecommunication System (IHETS). Today, IHETS supports and maintains three telecommunication networks which provide voice, video, and data services for Indiana’s public and private higher education institutions. These networks are known as IHETS Television, the State University Voice Network (SUVON), and the Internet Data Network (INDnet). The system presently serves 78 campuses and learning centers of its eight institution members. More than 300 receiving sites are served by IHETS Television alone (Indiana Partnership for Statewide Education(IPSE) News, 1996). The network programming currently accounts for between 8,000 and 12,000 enrollments in credit instruction or non-credit continuing education each year. For thirty years, Indiana’s colleges and universities have recognized the value of using television to make higher education more accessible to the citizens of Indiana.
INDnet, a statewide computing network, provides opportunities for higher educational institutions to meet their computer-based teaching and research missions. The network provides support for distance education activities by linking students throughout the state to Indiana’s institutions of higher education.
IHETS has a vital role in the success and future of the delivery system of distance education in Indiana. Simmons (1993), in his research, evaluated the IHETS’s delivery system’s contribution to the distance education of Indiana State University. His study suggests that while there appears to be some room for improvement in the IHETS, students feel very positive toward the IHETS delivery system. The study, based on the findings, recommends that instructors and administrators should work on: the interaction between students and instructors, and between and among students; methods of delivery and instruction; and evaluation and feedback techniques.
The IPSE’s strategic plan 1996-2001, which was approved by the IHETS board of directors, as Swain (1996) wrote is:
assessing the quality of the delivery mechanisms as well as the content of courses delivered by distributed learning technologies so that improvement can be made where deficiencies are detected.
The IHETS future plan for the assessment of the delivery systems will provide new opportunities for needed research in distance education in Indiana. Limited published research exist about computer-based distance education in Indiana.
In 1993, Brian Vargus and Christopher Gavette, from IUPUI, conducted research "Post-Secondary Educational Services in Central Indiana." The study tried to evaluate demographic and economic characteristics of the area, adult learners, employers’ needs, review of existing problems, and community learning network. They surveyed 900 participants and interviewed 915 participants in the process of gathering data from residents of central Indiana.
The study indicated that about 84.7% of Indiana residents over 18 years old do not possess a post-secondary degree. It is a strong indication of a vast market for job/training or career enhancement in Indiana. Vargus and Garrete discussed that the effective use of scarce public resources requires that institutions of higher education have a keen sense of the kinds of demands and needs the public has. The results of the study showed an overwhelming majority of participants (92%) indicated they thought continuing education and training after high school was very important, and most of those (88% of the total) thought this was very important for job advancement. Over 57% of the participants indicated they had taken either an evening class or a correspondence course "beyond high school" in one of the state higher education institutions. The main barriers mentioned by participants were things that fell in the area of time, money, and needed courses. In the conclusion section, Vargus and Garrete said,
our research revealed a market for post-secondary education in the nine county area of approximately 80,000 students. Over 9,000 suggested they will take a televised course for credit and about 6,000 expressed strong interest in a computer offered course. In sum there is a need to provide alternative delivery styles to meet the demand for higher education in central Indiana.
They recommended that the State of Indiana must realize the important investment it can make by providing accessible post-secondary courses from off-site delivery to electronic delivery.
The choice of technology to deliver practical and useful educational opportunities to learners should take the following principles: use what is available, choose reliability over sophistication, and let program goals drive technology decisions (Knapczyk, Rodes, Marche & Chapman, 1993). Their recommendation is based on the five years experience of coursework through distance education at Indiana University. The technology, instructional design, and delivery method are major factors in a successful distributed education. In the excitement over new technological achievements, we often lose sight of the more practical issue of how to develop a workable model for distance education in the present time of tight budgets and limited resources (Knapczyk, Rodes, Marche & Chapman, 1993).
Research findings indicated a growing demand for distance education classes among Indiana residents. Access Indiana, a public-private partnership with a statewide information system, will provide great opportunity for computer-based distance learning. It provides opportunity for higher education institutions in offering courses and for Indiana residents in accessing the educational resources and formal education without dependence to the place and time. In 1993, over 6,000 members of the population were interested in computer-based courses in Central Indiana. With the advancement of computer and telecommunication technologies, and more needs for continuing education by Indiana residents, the number of people in Indiana with the capability and interest in computer-based education should be much higher than 1993’s data. For a successful educational experience for learners, teachers, institutions, and society, we need a vast knowledge basis in the field of computer-based education. Contributions of research in this field are essential for strength and future direction of computer-based education in Indiana and United States.
Summary
A considerable body of research has been accumulated about distance education and media such as mail, radio, and television. In the last one hundred years, the main focus of research centered on the effectiveness of distance teaching and learning, and comparison of distance education with conventional education. During that time, most of the research projects in distance education tried to prove the existence of distance education, but very few focused on how to improve instructional design and educational experiences.
In 1940, there was only one college-level credit course offered by radio, and that course failed to attract any enrollments (Atkins, 1991). Coversely, in 1995, Britain’s Open University attracted 218,000 students from around the world (Open University, 1996). This comparison conveys a very clear message that the existence of distance education is no longer a subject of debate, but also is a strong indication of the vast growth and necessity of this method of education for learners. Until the last decade, television and radio dominated the system of delivery and communication in distance education. These systems of delivery and communication did not require special skills by learners and teachers. In the last ten years, the advancement in the computer and telecommunication technologies provided great opportunity for growth of computer-based distance education, but at the same time it created new questions and concerns in the field of distance education. The study of research literature also revealed the following questions and concerns in the computer-based distance education.
1. What does it take to be a successful teacher and student in the computer-based distance education?
2. What does it take to design an effective program based on the ever changing computer and telecommunication technologies?
3. What does it take to design the needed training and support for teachers and students?
4. What does it take to provide a successful educational experiences for students, teachers, institutions, organizations, and society?
5. What are the motivations and objectives of participants in the computer-based distance education.
The present study was undertaken to evaluate some of the questions which have been discussed and revealed in the literature review. The main question which was the focus of the present study was the level of computer and communication skills of teachers and students in computer-based distance education classes in Indiana. This study also evaluated characteristics of participants, educational experiences, and needed support and training in the computer-based distance education classes in Indiana. Due to the exploratory and descriptive nature of the study, survey methodology was used. The printed form of the survey and WWW form of the survey were designed in order to reach more participants in the study.
The growth of computer-based distance education has a profound effect on the adult education and lifelong education. The modern communication technology links educational institutions to homes, work sites, and communities. The research contributions are vital for positive and productive educational experiences for teachers and learners in the computer-based distance education.