117 DEATH IN MYTHOLOGY
You want to be familiar with Miao and Li Hollow-eyes (both in Eliot), Hindu origin of death (below), Krishna and Harishcandra and Yudhishthira( below), Hades and Orpheus (ML chaps.13-14), Hermes (ML chap.10) and Asclepius (ML in chap.9).
I. A culture's attitude toward death will depend on many other values and systems within the culture but two very noticeable sets of differences arise from whether a culture uses CYCLIC or LINEAR reckoning and whether it emphasizes INTERNAL or EXTERNAL control as a value. Typically, but not uniformly, the "East" (Asian cultures but also many tribal societies of other continents) displays an interest in INTERNAL control and CYCLIC reckoning, while the "West" (Europe and European derived cultures, like the American culture) shows a preference for EXTERNAL control and LINEAR reckoning.
a. INTERNAL vs. EXTERNAL CONTROL
An emphasis on the importance of SELF-CONTROL and mastery over the inner workings of the self marks eastern cultures (like Japanese and Hindu).
Faced with the reality of death this approach seeks to understand and accept the role of death in life as natural and therefore positive. (Look at the Hindu origin myth of death attached ). This approach is exemplified by the figure of the "wise one" as GURU or teacher, who devotes his/her energy to complete self-mastery.This approach, in a more active form, also appears in the samurai tradition and in the warrior tradition in general: "It's a good day to die." (Look at Krishna's death on attached ).
An emphasis on EXTERNAL CONTROL or mastery over the environment is characteristic of the West. Faced with death this tradition attempts to delay or overcome death as an enemy; this is most easily seen in the figure of the SCIENTIST, particularly in connection with medicine (cryogenics, miracle drugs, life-support systems, etc.) [Read about Asclepius in ML chap.9; note however also Li Hollow-Eyes of the eastern tradition in Eliot.] In this approach the attitude tends to be "Death shall have no dominion".b.CYCLIC vs. LINEAR PERSPECTIVE
Eastern traditions have shown a preference for CYCLIC reckoning, most obviously expressed in the notion of REINCARNATION. While such systems often include ideas of purification through punishment they do not view death itself as an enemy of life but as life's natural companion. Such culture's will often (not always) place greater emphasis on one's present life containing its own system of reward and punishment. [Harsihcandra's tale nevertheless shows an interest in the features of "hell" in an afterlife.]
Western traditions have shown a stronger interest in LINEAR reckoning, in which all events are discreet and unique and exist in a non-reversible chain moving in a single direction. This view has been coupled frequently with a notion of afterlife as the reward or punishment for our once-only life on earth. There is a tendency in this tradition to see death as the dark enemy of life. [There are of course western traditions of reincarnation as well, such as depicted in Plato's myth of ER and in Orphism; ML chaps.13-14 ]118
II. AFTERLIFE
a.Whether a culture emphasizes the cyclic or linear, the internal or external, it may or may not generate mythic images of the afterlife. This may show up as very vague ideas, such as those in Homer and in the Old Testament. The ideas may also be clear but unexpanded such as among some Aboriginal Australians who believe that they will enter a pleasant afterlife only if they undergone certain rituals (like having a front tooth removed) during their lives; if uninitiated, they wandered as discontent ghosts. The dominant Christian culture of western tradition places strong emphasis on the rewards and punishments of the afterlife, but so do various eastern sects of Buddhism which include belief in reincarnation.
b.A frequent theme found in myths of the world concerning the afterlife is the "harrowing of hell" or "katabasis" in which a living human descends temporarily into the land of the dead. This journey may take on different meanings according to the motivation of the hero:
1. Shamanic: a wise one journeys to the land of the dead to gain knowledge, plants or other medicine to cure a patient; sometimes the shaman tries to bring back the soul of a person who has recently died or almost died [Odysseus' tale is something like this] RESOURCES
2.Orphic: like the shamanic tale but specifically involving a hero and his loved one or bride [a frequent myth among Amerindians, also perhaps to be seen in the myth of Herakles and Admete] LOVED ONE
3.Martyr (harrowing of Hell): hero descends into the land of the suffering dead and in that place relieves the suffering of some, many or all [recall the myth of Miao; recall also the events following the death of Jesus; see also the tale of Yudhishthra] SUFFERING
4.Warrior: here the hero seizes from the powers of death one of their possessions, whether it is a treasure or a ghost or a guardian [e.g. Herakles and Cerberus] TREASURE
c.The interpretation of this theme (katabasis) varies widely from theory to theory, as we have seen with the interpretation of the Demeter-Kore myth (rite of passage, agrarian cycle ritual, religious promise of soul's immortality, psychological individuation, etc.). Symbolically, the tale in the Orphic form (like that of Cupid and Psyche) can be understood as the integration of masculine and feminine parts of the soul. In Jungian terms this means that the ANIMUS (masculine spirit of activity, ascension, rising, intellect) becomes integrated with the ANIMA (feminine spirit of receptivity, descent into depths, sinking, feeling) . This union is expressed in the Chinese system by the TAO, "the way", composed of the mixed energies of male and female, YIN and YANG.
While the katabasis tale cannot be fully explained by such psychological and philosophical interpretations, the significance of the theme is made clear by the critically important issues these theories relate it to (human energy, self integration, etc.).
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Tales on the origin of Death
1.Dagomba: The perverted message
[of TOGO]In the old days men did not die, and except for the chiefs they passed their whole times as slaves. At last they grew weary of this eternal bondage and decided to send a messenger to Wuni to beg him to put an end to their servitude. They chose for this duty their friend the dog, and he departed on the errand. As he ran along the road which led to the dwelling place of Wuni he came to a village where there was an old woman cooking a pot of something over a fire. The dog thought it a good chance to get some food and sat down nearby gazing at his hoped for meal. The old woman tried to chase him away but that merely made him more anxious to share some of the good things inside the pot. While he was thus waiting a young goat who had overheard the message of the men came along, and seeing the dog tarrying decided he would do a good thing if he himself took the message and delivered it to Wuni. He therefore went on.
Now the dog had to wait a long time and at last the pot was boiling. The old woman took it off and fetching a baby opened the lid of the pot which after all was only full of water, with which she began to wash the infant. The dog was very annoyed and ran off down the road to Wuni. On his way he met the goat who asked him where he was off to. The dog told him, and the goat replied that now it was quite unnecessary to proceed as he himself had given the message. The dog asked him what message, and when the goat told him that he had arrived at Wuni's compound and there told the god that men were tired of being slaves and now wanted to die, the dog was very upset and raced away to Wuni to correct the mistake. He came to the god, but the latter refused to listen to the new message, saying that he did not believe it and that he had already arranged for the death of men. Thus it is that death comes to all men nowadays and men remain slaves.
[Susan Fledman,African Myths and Tales]
2. Krachi of Togo
In the beginning there was a famine on earth and a young man wandering about the forest looking for food came to a place that was quite new to him. He saw a great lump on the ground and when he reached it found that it was a giant covered with long silky hair. The hair was so long it would have stretched from one village to another. He tried to creep away but suddenly the giant looked up and asked him what he wanted. The lad said he was hungry and the giant promised to feed him if he became his servant. The youth agreed and learned that the giant's name was Death.
The food was delicious and the young man was happy to serve the giant for a long time. But at last he got homesick and begged leave of the giant , who let him go on the promise that he would send another boy in his place. He brought the giant his brother. The young man went home, but after a time he was hungry again the famine being still severe, and he longed for the giant's fine food.
He returned to the giant and was given as much food as he wanted, under the condition of working for him again.He stayed there for a long time, but was surprised that he never saw his brother. When he asked Death about him he was told by the giant that he was away on some business.
In time the youth was homesick again and asked for another holiday. The giant agreed again if he would bring him a girl to marry. The lad persuaded his sister to marry Death and she accepted, taking a servant to her new home.120
Not long after he was hungry again and longed for the giant's sweet meat, so he returned to the forest. Death was not pleased at being bothered so much but he told the boy to go into an inner room in his house and help himself.
The young man was horrified when he picked up a bone and recognized it as belonging to his sister, and when he looked around he saw that all the meat was from his sister and her servant.
The village people crept into the forest but were afraid at the sight of the giant. Then they planned to set light to his long hair which stretched far all around. They watched from a short distance and saw the giant tossing and sweating as the flames approached, and at last they reached his head and he lay as dead.
When they got near the young man saw in the roots of the giant's hair a packet of magical medicine. He took it out and showed it to the people. An old man suggested that they might try to sprinkle some of the powder on the bones in the giant's hut. When this was done the missing girls and boy sprang up alive again. The young man suggested putting some of the magical powder on the giant, but the people protested for fear he might come back to life. The boy just put a little powder on the eye of death. It opened at once and everybody ran away in fear. It is from that time that Death has come among people. When the giant opens and shuts his eye, somebody dies.
[in G.Parrinder, African Mythology]
3. FOUR HINDU MYTHS OF DEATHa. Mahabharata (Hindu epic) Origin of Death
At the time of creation, the Grandfather (Brahma), full of fiery energy, created living beings. These creatures increased in age and number to excess, but they did not die again. Then there was no space anywhere between creatures; there was no space to breath, so congested was the triple universe. He began to worry about how he could destroy them, but though he kept thinking he could not find a means of accomplishing this destruction. He became angry and from all the apertures of his body a fire shot forth, and with that fire the Grandfather burned all the regions of the sky. All creatures moving and still were burned by that great blast of anger ..
Then Rudra the Pillar, the lord of Vedic sacrifices, the god who destroys the power of his enemies...spoke to Brahma about succor and refuge..."Know that I am concerned about the creation of living beings. You have created these creatures; do not be angry with them, oh Grandfather."
"I am not angry nor is it my wish that living creatures should cease to be. But in order to lighten the earth I have sought this destruction. This goddess Earth, oppressed by the burden, has kept urging me to destroy them..."
"The universe has been reduced to ashes and flooded over. Have mercy kind lord...once destroyed these creatures will never return again in any way...You have appointed me to be the presiding deity over people here...I beg that all creatures may be subject to repetitions of birth and death"
As the noble Brahma surpressed the fire of his anger, from all the apertures of his body a dark woman appeared, wearing red garments, with red eyes and red palms and soles, adorned with divine ear-rings and ornaments. Then the god...summoned her and said,"Death, kill these creatures. I thought of you when I was angrily devising a means of destruction; therefore, destroy all creatures...
121 The wide-eyed fragile woman, surpressing her grief, joined her palms and bent like a vine, saying," How could you have created a woman like me to carry out such a hideous task, terrifying all creatures that breath? I am afraid of violating dharma (2)...The beloved sons, friends, brothers, mothers and fathers of the dead will think evil of me and I fear the dead whom they mourn. The moisture of their pitiable tears will scorch me for eternal years"
(Brahma insists but Death resists and goes off to practice austerities [tapas] for millions of years; he tells her that she will not break dharma,"Those tears which I saw fall and which you held before you in your hands, will become terrible diseases which will afflict mankind when the appointed time has come. When the time comes for the end of all creatures that breath, you Death, will employ desire and anger together...)
Then she began to destroy the life's breath of creatures that breath, at the time of their end, bewildering them with desire and anger. And the teardrops fallen from Death became diseases which injure the bodies of men.
b . Krishna [Mahabharata]
Krishna ruled Dvaraka for 36 years after the Kurukshetra battle was over. The Vrishnis, the Bholas and the other branches of the Yadavas belonging to Krishna's tribe spent their days in unrestrained self-indulgence and luxury. They lost all sense of discipline and humility.
Once some sages came to Dvaraka. The arrogant and irreverent Yadavas mocked these rishis with a practical joke. They dressed up one of their young men like a woman and presenting him to the reverent guests said,"O learned men, tell us whether this lady will have a boy or a girl."
The rishis saw through the irreverent joke and said in anger,"This person will give birth to a mace, not a boy or a girl, and that mace will be the Yama of your tribe and destroy you all." The rishis departed after pronouncing this curse.
The foolish Yadavas were rather perturbed at this unpleasant ending of what they had thought was a good joke. Next day they were in consternation to see that Samba, the man who had dressed up in female clothes, developed labor pains and gave birth to a mace. This filled them with terror because they feared that their end was near as the rishis had cursed.
[They pulverize the mace and throw it into the sea; it floats back and becomes a stand of reeds on the shore. Days later a fight breaks out their between those who had been partisans of the Pandavas and the Kauravas and Pradyumna, Krishna's son, is killed in the fray. Krishna and others use the reeds as weapons and destroy each other.]
Balarama who was seeing all this was overwhelmed with shame and disgust and sank to the ground. He gave up his life as he lay in a yoga trance and passed away into the ocean in a stream of light which issued from his forehead like a silver serpent. Thus ended the avatar of Narayana as Balarama.
Krishna saw all his people thus destroy themselves as predestined..."The time has come for me to go," he said to himself and, lying on the ground, fell asleep.
In that wooded beach, a hunter prowling for game saw Vasudeva lying on the ground and from a distance mistook him for a wild animal. He bent his bow and shot an arrow at the prostrate figure which, piercing his foot in the instep, went full through his body. Thus did the great Vasudeva depart
from the world of men.
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c . HARISHCANDRA
Long ago in the Treta Age there lived the noble sage-king Harishcandra, virtuous of soul, who was an earth-protector of refulgent fame. Under the rule of that king there were neither famine nor disease, no untimely death among people and no citizens with a taste for evil. No one became drunk with wealth, power tapas or wine, and no females were born who failed to reach maturity.
[Harishcandra is entered by a spirit who is hostile toward the sage Vishvamithra, and in this possessed condition the king says he will kill the sage; the demon flees when Vishvamithra expresses anger and the king begs forgiveness.]"To whom are you supposed to give? Who is to be protected? And with whom must you wage war, o king?"
"Gifts are to be given to the eminent brahmins, then to the poor. Those who are afraid are always to be protected. And war is to be fought against one's enemies."
"If you as king fully observe dharma of the kings, then give me my due reward, for I am a brahmin eager to retire."
With inner excitement, the king heard these words; he considered himself reborn, and made this reply,"Tell me without hesitation what I am to give to you, o holy one! Know that it is already given, however difficult to acquire, whether it be gold, or money, my son, my daughter's dead body, my kingdom, my city, my fortune, or my life itself---whatever your heart desires."
[Vishvamithra asks for everything but wife, son, life and honor of the king and then sentences him to exile but also demands a Royal Coronation fee; since Harishcandra owns nothing now he has to sell his wife and son, and then he sells himself to a Candala (outcast) and becomes a robber of the
corpses in cremation grounds:"Covered with rags made from the worn-out garments of the dead, his face and arms, belly and feet smeared with ashes and dust from the funeral pyres, his hands and fingers sticky with all kinds of fat, marrow and bones (of the corpses), he sighed deeply, intent upon eating the porridge left for various corpses." His wife arrives with their dead son and he prepares
to cremate the three of them but the gods arrive.]
Then Dharma spoke," Don't commit violence! For I am Dharma and have come to you, pleased with your patience, your self-restraint, your truthfulness and all your other fine qualities."...
His son came to life, with a delicate body and in good health, his mind and faculties clear. King Harishcandra, restored to his fortune and robed in celestial garments and garlands, at once embraced his son, and so did his wife...
[He refuses the offer to ascend to heaven because it would mean abandoning his people, and so they all return to his city, Ayodhya, where dharma had been faithfully observed.]
Then all the king's friends, happy and fortunate, together with the king, accompanied by their wives, sons and servants, mounted up to heaven; step by step, chariot to chariot they climbed aloft. And King Harishcandra was thrilled with utmost joy.
After attaining surpassing well-being through those chariots, the king sat in a structure of a heavenly city, surrounded by fine ramparts and walls, while Ushanas the illustrious teacher of the Daityas, witnessing his happiness, sang there a verse,"There has never been, nor shall there be, a king like Harishcandra."
123 d. YUDHISHTHIRA
[After all his brothers die Yudhishthira seeks them out and with divine guidance mounts to what he thinks is heaven---but is actually a set-up to test him. There he sees his great (now dead) enemy, Duryodhana, and in response to this he says:]
"I long to see and be with them all. I do not wish to be in heaven, for what good is it for me to be here away from my brothers? Where ever they may be that to me is heaven; not this place."
So the messenger proceeded in front and Yudhishthira followed him. As they went along it soon became dark and in the gathering gloom could be dimly seen things weird and revolting. He waded through slippery slime of blood and feces. The path was strewn with carrion and bones and dead men's hair.Worms were wriggling everywhere and there was an unbearable stench in the air.He saw mutilated human bodies everywhere...The foul odors of the place were so sickening that for a moment he was minded to go back.But just then vaguely familiar voices arose all around in loud lamentation.[What seem to be his relatives beg him to stay and thus relieve their pain a bit. In fury he cries out against the gods and tells the messenger:]
"Go back to your masters. I shall stay here where my dear brothers, for no other sin than devotion to me, are consigned to the tortures of hell. Let me be with them."
Then Indra and Yama appeared before Yudhishthira where he stood in anguish. When they came the darkness rolled away and the horrid sights disappeared. The sinners and their suffering were no more to be seen. A fragrant breeze blew as Yama, the god of Dharma, smiled on his son Yudhishthira.
"Wisest of men, this is the third time I have tested you. You chose to remain in hell for the sake of your brothers. It is inevitable that kings and rulers go through hell if only for a while...It was an illusion designed to test you..."
Thus said Yama to Yudhishthira, who thereupon was transfigured. The mortal frame was gone and he was a god. With the disappearance of the human body also disappeared all trace of anger and hatred. Then Yudhishthira saw there Karna and all his other brothers and the sons of Dhritarashtra also, serene and free from anger, all having attained the state of the gods. In this reunion Yudhishthira at last found peace and real happiness.124
4. Hopi Myth of DeathHopi tale of Emergence
[When the people lived in the world below this one they heard some movement above and decided to investi- gate. The chiefs asked swallow, then dove, then hawk to scout. They each came back exhausted. Finally catbird was sent.]So catbird flew up and passed through the opening in the sky. He passed the place where hawk had turned back. He went on. He came to a land of sand and mesas. He saw large fires burning alongside gardens of squash, melons and corn. Beyond the garden was a single house made of stone. A person was sitting there, his head down, sleeping.. The catbird alighted nearby and waited. The person awoke and raised his head. His eyes were sunken in deeply and there was no hair on his head, and his face was seared by burns and encrusted with dried blood. Across the bridge of his nose and cheekbones two black lines were painted. Around his neck were two heavy necklaces, one made of 4 strands of turquoise, the other of bones. The catbird recognized him. He was Masauwu, Spirit of Death, Owner of Fire, Master of the Upper World, assigned to this place by Tawa, because he had no other place for him.
Masauwu looked at the catbird, saying,"You, why are you here?"
The catbird said," I was sent from down below to see whose footsteps are heard by the people in the sky." Masauwu said," Yes. Now you know the footsteps are mine. Are you not afraid?"
"No," answered catbird," for I am only a bird and don’t know enough yet to fear anything. I came because the Lower World is infested with evil, and there are many good people who would like to come here to live. Down below the rain does not fall, the springs do not flow, the corn dries up in the fields, and there are numerous persons who do not respect the virtues of life. The people of good heart ask your permission to enter the Upper World and build their villages here."
Masauwu said,"You see how it is here. There is no light, only a grayness everywhere. There is no warmth and I must build fires to make my crops grow. But there is land and water. If the people wish to come let them come!"
The catbird left Masauwu and returned to the opening through which he had passed. He went down to where the chiefs and medicine men were waiting. They asked him," Did you arrive there and find the one who walks in the sky?"
The catbird answered," Yes, I found the person who lives there. He is Masauwu. His face is terrible to see. But I spoke with him and he said,’ You see how it is. There is no light here and no warmth. But there is plenty of land and water, so if the people want to come, let them come.’"
Hearing this, the chief of the Fire People spoke. He said, "Masauwu is our Spirit. We are the ones to whom he sent the secret of fire. He is our relative. Therefore we are willing to go." Others said," Yes, let all of us who wish to escape from evil go there. The Fire People can lead us and speak for us with Masauwu. Let us prepare for the journey."
It was agreed but the chiefs and medicine men wondered how they would reach the sipapu, doorway in the sky.[from Harold Courlander, Fourth World of the Hopi]